Introduction
Nirvana is a Sanskrit term that comes from the Pali ‘nibbana.’ It translates quite literally to an ‘extinguished state.’ This state is a spiritual ideal and the objective of the Buddhist path. Its translation refers to the extinguishment of a flame, a metaphor for the suffering of birth and rebirth, which the Buddhist tradition believes to be fueled by ignorance, desire, and other negative mental states. Nirvana refers to the extinguishment of these binding frames of mind. Simply put, nirvana is a state that exists outside of the confines of samsara and is characterized by the absence of suffering.
What is nirvana?
In The Life of the Buddha, a textual rendition of the twelve acts of the Sakyamuni Buddha, the Buddha is said to have “passed completely from suffering.” (Chogyel 90). After he fulfilled his purpose on earth by teaching the Dharma and reaching enlightenment, he knew that his time had come. He laid on his side, closed his eyes, and as he passed from suffering, transitioned from samsara to nirvana.
A 3rd century sculpture portraying the Buddha’s death. The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
The concept’s debut in Buddhism appeared initially during the Buddha’s sermon on the Four Noble Truths. These truths are seen as the encapsulation of the Buddhist path. They guide a being to pass from suffering in the same way the Sakyamuni Buddha did. The first, second, and fourth truths are suffering, the cause of suffering, and the path that leads to the end of suffering. The third truth is the removal of suffering, which refers to the cessation of suffering and its causes. This eradication can be understood as nirvana.
The Buddha’s teachings established that birth and rebirth are marked by suffering, and nirvana is the state beyond that. It is not a tangible place, but rather a state of absence. This is important to a proper examination of the term. Often it is thought to be a state only characterized by the presence of positive qualities such as bliss or peace, but nirvana cannot be understood without the lack of negative qualities that incite suffering.
Another key aspect of comprehending nirvana is its classification as a term and concept. Throughout the history of Buddhism, different groups, traditions, and even individuals have recognized the term as either a psychological or ontological concept. This is the distinction between a mental state and a way of being. From a critical, historical lens it is important to see the two views as working in harmony. As Thomas Kasulis explains in his encyclopedia article about nirvana, the two views complement each other and work to keep one another in check so that neither distorts the Buddhist path (Kasulis 2005).
How is nirvana reached? Where is nirvana?
In the last of his Four Noble Truths, the Buddha outlined the Eightfold Path, the only way to break free from samsara and reach nirvana. This path consists of eight practices and values that are said to lead a person to liberation. These practices are characterized by three categories: wisdom, ethical conduct, and meditation.
With regards to nirvana’s role in the Buddhist cosmology, any and all beings in the universe exist in either samsara or nirvana; a worlds-system characterized by suffering or a state beyond it. This implies that there is no escape from samsara aside from nirvana, so if an individual has not worked toward nirvana, they will continue to exist in the neverending cycle of birth and rebirth.
A depiction of the Buddhist cosmology including the wheel of life (samsara) and what is outside of it (nirvana). Himalayan Art Resources
Types of nirvana
One important thing to note is the distinction between nirvana with remainder and nirvana without remainder. The first can be achieved before death and is said to have a remainder because of the physical body and mind that still exist within the confines of samsara. The latter is achieved at the time of one’s death. This is considered to be without remainder because the possibility of future existence and the chain of causation have both been completely eradicated (Lopez 2014).
Other Perspectives
The definition of nirvana is complex and depends heavily on its context. Different traditions, groups of people, and schools of thought have defined it in terms somewhat unique from one another. These are not the only perspectives worthy of examination, but the following are three prominent and intriguing viewpoints.
The first perspective to be considered is that of Nagarjuna, a famous Indian philosopher in the 2nd century CE. His philosophy can generally be characterized by emptiness, specifically the emptiness of intrinsic nature (Westerhoff 2018). He asserted that nirvana and samsara are both the same thing and nothing because of his belief that they are empty in nature.
Painting of the Indian philosopher Nagarjuna. Himalayan Art Resources.
The East Asian Mahayana Buddhist tradition offers another perspective to examine. As opposed to early traditions, many believed, especially in China, that the positive awakening of enlightenment is more significant than the suffering from which it is unbound. This mindset weakens the magnitude and relevance of nirvana as a concept.
Lastly, according to the Theravada, an early Buddhist tradition, nirvana is the end of the path for an Arhat. It is thought to be a form of liberation, but one that is less significant than that of a Bodhisattva from the Mahayana perspective. This is because they believed that an Arhat is more limited than a Bodhisattva.
References
“Nirvana.” Buddhist Philosophy: A Historical Analysis, by David J. Kalupahana and G. P. Malalasekera, University of Hawai’i Press, 1976, pp. 69–90. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wqjnw.13.
Kasulis, Thomas P. “Nirvāṇa.” Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by Lindsay Jones, 2nd ed., vol. 10, Macmillan Reference USA, 2005, pp. 6628-6635. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3424502262/GVRL?u=31841&sid=GVRL&xid=2e4364d9.
Berzin, Alexander. “Nirvana in the Different Buddhist Systems.” Study Buddhism, Berzin Archives E.V., studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/lam-rim/samsara-nirvana/nirvana-in-the-different-buddhist-systems.
Lopez, Donald S. “Nirvana.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 31 Mar. 2014, www.britannica.com/topic/nirvana-religion.
Westerhoff, Jan Christoph. “Nāgārjuna.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 8 June 2018, plato.stanford.edu/entries/nagarjuna/.
Further Readings
Bhikkhu, Thanissaro. “A Verb For Nirvana.” Access to Insight, 2005, www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/nirvanaverb.html. [An opinion piece on the possibility of the term ‘nirvana’ being used as a verb as opposed to the noun that follows the verbs ‘reach’ or ‘enter.’]
Carter, John Ross. “Four Noble Truths.” Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by Lindsay Jones, 2nd ed., vol. 5, Macmillan Reference USA, 2005, pp. 3178-3180. Gale eBooks, https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3424501068/GVRL?u=31841&sid=GVRL&xid=243a2658. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019. [An encyclopedia article that highlights the Buddha’s Four Noble Truths and their interpretations in the Mahayana and Theravada traditions.]
Batchelor, Stephen. “Nagarjuna’s Verses from the Center.” Tricycle, 2000, tricycle.org/magazine/nagarjunas-verses-center/. [A magazine article that goes into detail about what has been understood about the life and teachings of Nagarjuna. It also includes excerpts from his Verses From the Center]
External Links
To see the Met’s collection of Buddhist art (which includes many pieces relevant to nirvana), click here. The website is easy to navigate and has a search bar that allows you to find art pieces related to specific concepts that are of interest.
To watch a video of Thich Nhat Hanh, a Vietnamese Buddhist monk, define and answer in-depth questions about nirvana, click here.
To listen to a podcast that goes into more detail about the Eightfold Path and its applications in everyday life, click here.
I found this post really clear and well-informed. The entire concept of Nirvana is extremely complex but I thought you did a great job summarizing and explaining the most important points in one entry. I especially liked the “Other Perspectives” section because it highlighted that different Buddhist philosophies and beliefs have different perceptions of Nirvana and that there is no single definition that can explain how all Buddhists view Nirvana. One suggestion I have would be to expand the “Other Perspectives” section slightly to include more information about each perspective because it’s interesting to compare all of the nuances in the different views.